Rethinking Hell? A Biblical Response to Annihilationism and Universalism

Introduction

Very little is certain in this world except the fact that everyone will eventually face death. The grim reality of death need not be frightening and a topic to be avoided at all costs. Instead, it should be thought-provoking and heighten the significance of two key questions: Is there life after death? What does the Bible teach about heaven and hell? Under the assumption that the Bible is indeed the Word of God, the answer to the second question will inevitably resolve the first. Therefore, this question is of utmost importance not just to Christians but to all.

The wrong answer to the second question, however, has significant implications. According to a recent survey, 58% of Americans believe in hell (down from 71% in recent years).[1] Yet, only 2% think they will end up in hell after death.[2] This contradicts what Jesus said: that most will spend eternity after death in hell while only a few will be in heaven (Matt. 7:13-14).

In addition to these unsettling statistics that emphasize a tremendous need for evangelism, this could also result from flawed theology regarding the afterlife. Two of the increasingly popular modern-day views that fail to adequately explain the biblical text are annihilationism and universalism, which reject the traditional view of eternal judgment in hell. Alternative views to the traditional notion of heaven and hell, such as universalism and annihilationism, should be dismissed because they do not align with the teachings of Scripture, while the traditional view does.

Overview of the Views of Heaven and Hell

 

Annihilationism 

Annihilationism teaches that the unsaved will not spend eternity in hell (as is taught by the traditional view) but instead will eventually cease to exist.[3] In other words, the unsaved are annihilated rather than face eternal judgment in hell. This view dates back to the fourth century, as articulated by an African apologist named Arnobius.[4] 

This view holds that while the righteous will inherit eternal life, the unrighteous will be allowed by God to pass out of existence.[5] It also maintains the extinction of human life directly caused by sin. By nature, humans are immortal and would have eternal life if saved by Christ or not affected by sin. There are two subtypes of annihilationism—the first holds death as the natural result of sin and takes it literally when Paul writes, “The wages of sin is death” (Rom. 6:23 ESV). The other subtype of this view holds that God would not allow the unrighteous to live eternally, based on His character or their emotional aversion to eternal judgment. Proponents of this view warrant judgment and punishment for sins, but contrary to the traditional view, deny that it lasts for eternity, proposing temporary judgment until God eliminates the sinner from existence. As Clark Pinnock said, “Everlasting torture is intolerable from a moral point of view because it makes God into a bloodthirsty monster who maintains an everlasting Auschwitz for victims whom He does not even allow to die.”[6] The verses annihilationists use as proof texts include John 3:16, Matt. 10:28, and 2 Thess. 1:9.

Universalism

Universalism is a view that has become very popular in modern culture. Rob Bell, a universalist, defines this view as follows: “At the heart of this perspective is the belief that, given enough time, everybody will turn to God and find themselves in the joy and peace of God’s presence…the love of God will melt every hard heart, and even the most depraved sinners will eventually give up their resistance and turn to God.”[7] In other words, universalism teaches that everybody will eventually make it into heaven, despite their deeds on earth or whether they chose to accept Christ as their Lord and Savior, leaving hell eventually empty.

The best-known early proponent of this view was Origen (ca. 185-254), but the fifth-century ecumenical council of 553 A.D. deemed his views heretical.[8] Until the 1800s, this view was not a popular topic among theologians, but it was eventually revived and brought back into conversation.[9] While there are many forms in which universalism has been raised throughout history, three of them include universal explicit opportunity, universal pardon, and universal restoration.[10] 

Similar to annihilationism, universalism holds that after experiencing temporal punishment in hell, the unrepentant will no longer suffer. Where universalism differs from annihilationism is in what happens after the temporary judgment. Universalism teaches that the love of God will eventually melt every hard heart, and even the most wretched sinners will end up in heaven with God for eternity.[11] Universalists use passages as proof, including Romans 5:18, 11:32, 1 Corinthians 15:22, Phil 2:11, and Col. 1:20.

Traditional

The traditional view of heaven and hell holds that after death and before the final resurrection, there will be a conscious intermediate state (Luke 16:19-31), followed by a general resurrection on the last day (John 6:40), a universal judgment according to the works of each person in this life (Matt. 25:46), in which each person will dwell for eternity in either heaven (with God) or hell (separate from God) enduring conscious torment (John 3:16-17).[12] Those who historically held to the traditional view include Tertullian, Lactonius, Basil of Caesarea, Jerome, Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, Augustine, Aquinas, Luther, Calvin, Edwards, Whitefield, and Wesley.[13] In summary, the traditional view of the afterlife teaches that both heaven and hell are eternal, which is in contrast to both universalism and annihilationism. 

The Greek word for eternal is aiõnios. Some universalists, such as Gregory MacDonald, have proposed that the concept of “eternity” and “everlasting” specifically associated with anything other than eternal life with God merely refers to “the age to come.”[14] Thomas Talbott is another well-known universalist who also affirms this view.[15] While it can refer to an age or period to come, the term's most common meaning is “everlasting,” based on the surrounding context.[16] This is especially made clear in the parallelism used in Matthew 25:46, where Matthew writes, “And these will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous in eternal life” (Matt. 25:46 ESV).

There is nothing in the context of this verse to suggest anything other than the meaning for both uses of aiõnios referring to unending rather than lasting until a certain age. Thus, the scholarly consensus holds that the correct interpretation of the usage of this phrase is eternal in the endless and everlasting sense.[17] Therefore, correcting erroneous views on the doctrine of heaven and hell is most important. This paper will show that the view properly supported by Scripture is the traditional view and, thus, should be accepted.

Heaven: Eternal Peace

The Nature of Heaven

While both annihilationism and universalism's main contention with the traditional view of the afterlife primarily concerns the eternity of hell, the concept of heaven is worth discussing. A proper understanding of heaven according to Scripture will show why the universalist view is flawed according to Scripture. Examining heaven will also highlight the importance of this eternal destination compared to hell.

The term for heaven used in the Old Testament in Hebrew is shamayim, and in the New Testament (Greek) is ouranos.[18] There are three ways in which these terms are used throughout Scripture. The first way is in the cosmological sense, such as “the heavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:1).[19] Secondly, it can be a synonym for God.[20] The third way these terms are used is to refer to the eternal abode of God, as when Jesus taught His disciples to pray, saying, “Our Father in heaven” (Matt. 6:9).[21] This final use of the term “heaven” in Scripture is most relevant to this paper, as it has significant implications. In this sense, heaven is where believers will be for all eternity (1 Thess. 4:17; John 20:17; Heb. 9:24; Matt. 6:19-20).

Most clearly, Peter wrote of believers being born again and “to an inheritance that is imperishable, undefiled, and unfading, kept in heaven for you, who by God’s power are being guarded through faith for a salvation ready to be revealed” (1 Peter 1:4-5 ESV). Heaven is also, and most importantly, the presence of God (Rev. 21:3) and worship—glorifying God (Rev. 19:1-4).[22] It will be free of all evil and sin (Rev 21:4), and the devil and his cohorts will be thrown in the lake of fire forever (Rev. 20:10). Heaven, as taught in both the Old and New Testaments, is free of sinners and those who rebel or reject God (Isaiah 65-66).

With this being said, one would be mistaken to assume that after Jesus returns (the final resurrection), believers will go up to heaven to be with God—despite Jesus saying that His Father’s house has many rooms and that He is preparing a place so others can join Him (John 14:2-3).[23] This is because the New Testament teaches that Jesus will return to earth from heaven (Acts 1:11), and all will be restored as the Old Testament prophets prophesied. Moreover, mentions of rewards, investments, and inheritance “in heaven” after the final resurrection do not necessitate living in heaven for eternity (Matt. 5:12, Luke 6:23; 35, 1 Cor. 3:14; 9:18). Instead, such expressions show that what is held near and dear (loyalties, hopes, and values) will be heavenly and not merely earthly, centered on God and His perfect will rather than the false securities humans have of the world.[24] 

Thus, as both the Old and New Testaments teach, the final eternal heaven will be a restoration of all of creation, also called the “new heavens and the new earth” (Rev. 21:1-5, Isaiah 65:17; 66:22). Therefore, interpreting the concept of “heaven” must be done in light of similar terminology used in Scripture rather than based on the consensus of modern-day culture—such as believers going to heaven on a cloud with angels playing harps.

The Kingdom of God

The “kingdom of God” and “kingdom of heaven” both refer to the abode of God in the gospel of Matthew and a point of emphasis that Jesus taught about, which eventually was taught by the apostles (Acts 8:12; 19:8; 28:23; 31). Both Jesus and His apostles viewed the kingdom of God as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies concerning the afterlife in the presence of God (Mark 1:15). While the New Testament teaches that the kingdom of God was inaugurated with the arrival of Jesus, there is an undertone of both a present and future dimension of such a kingdom. This is also called “inaugurated eschatology,” in which the “last days” spoken of in the Old Testament took place in the ministry of Jesus (Matt. 12:28; 2 Cor. 5:17, Luke 17:21), but a full consummation when Jesus returns in glory is still to come (Rev. 11:15, Matt. 6:10, Luke 22:18, Acts 14:22).[25] 

However, despite what universalists may propose, such a present embrace of heaven (2 Cor. 5:17) and the eventual physical participation are not all-inclusive, “while the sons of the kingdom will be thrown into the outer darkness. In that place there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Matt. 8:12 ESV). This is also true for those who profess to be a follower of Jesus (Matt. 7:21-23). The apostle Paul also specifically mentions examples of impenitent sinners who will not inherit the kingdom of God (1 Cor. 6:9-10, Gal. 5:21). Thus, the traditional view of the afterlife holds that heaven is exclusive for just those who are “counted worthy” (2 Thess. 1:5). Having understood “heaven,” the main point of content universalists and annihilationists have with traditionalists can be addressed more adequately: eternal judgment in hell.

Hell: Eternal Judgment

Nature of Hell

The traditional view of hell is that it is an eternal state of conscious judgment, punishment, and torment (Isaiah 66:24, Mark 9:43-48). As unsettling as this teaching may be, it is reverently taught by traditional theologians because “God’s Word teaches it.”[26] However, the portrayal many have of hell today is more a byproduct of medieval imagery rather than Scripture.[27] This includes thinking hell is a place full of never-ending flames and a throne where Satan sits with red horns and a pitchfork. This, however, is not in alignment with the teachings of Scripture. While some medieval images are based on language depicting such a horrifying place in Scripture (everlasting burning, lake of fire, among others), it must be asked whether these illustrations should be taken literally or metaphorically.

Some theologians have considered these illustrations literal representations of hell's nature.[28] However, it seems more reasonable to conclude that these illustrations are metaphors to show finite human beings the degrees to which hell should be avoided at all costs. For instance, two critical elements in such illustrations of hell — flames and darkness — cancel each other out if taken literally: the fire would illuminate the place, ridding it of darkness. Moreover, Revelation 19 and 20 teach that Satan and his demons will be cast into the lake of fire. Still, literal fire would do nothing to spiritual beings, making it much more likely that it is being used metaphorically.

Instead, these illustrations are to be understood metaphorically; as Paul Copan said, “Both images represent existence away from the Lord’s presence. This is the real essence of hell: being cut off from our source of life and joy and separated from God’s blessing forever. Darkness evokes this sense of separation and removal. The reference to flames represents severe, holy judgment.”[29] That said, there are common objections from those who reject the traditional view of the afterlife that must be addressed.

Common Objections to Eternal Hell

Many critics of the traditional view of hell, including annihilationists and universalists, raise objections specifically concerning disproportionate punishments for sins and God “sending” people to hell for eternity, which goes against His goodness and justice. Regarding the disproportion of punishment for sins, John Stackhouse Jr. said, “Finite beings can perform only a finite amount of sin, and therefore, a finite amount of suffering is sufficient to atone for it.”[30] 

However, this objection is flawed for two primary reasons.

First, the amount of time it takes to perform a sin does not necessarily correlate with the seriousness of the sin. Take, for instance, the act of murdering somebody. It takes seconds to pull the trigger of a gun and end a life. Yet, the punishment for such a crime is much longer than mere seconds, and rightfully so. It is not the time it takes to sin that carries weight, but who the sin is against. Witnessing somebody kill a fly would not warrant concern. Nor would panic be the result of somebody killing a frog. However, witnessing an attempted murder of a human being would cause immediate panic and a demand for justice to be served. In the same way, all sins committed in this life, though the life itself is finite, are against the infinite God (Ps. 51:4) and rightly deserve endless punishment.[31] The other reason this objection is flawed is that sin does not stop after a finite time but continues endlessly, as the Bible does not suggest repentance in hell.[32]

The second objection questions why God sends people to hell. The issue with this objection lies with the word “send.” There are seven references to “gnashing of teeth” in Matthew and Luke, which reflect anger at God and the misery felt by those separated from God, for it would be of even greater misery for them if they were in the presence of God.[33] In this life, every choice moves us closer to either eternal destination: heaven or hell. Those who reject God and want nothing to do with Him in this life, therefore, consign themselves to hell (the separation from God). One could even say it would be the most unloving thing to do for God to forcefully bring those who want nothing to do with Him into His presence for eternity. As C.S. Lewis said on this topic, “I willingly believe that the damned are, in one sense, successful, rebels to the end; that the doors of hell are locked on the inside.”[34] Thus, both objections are flawed and do not reveal any inconsistencies between the traditional view of the afterlife and the character of God. Having addressed the above objections, annihilationism and universalism can be critiqued thoroughly.

Critique of Annihilationism and Universalism

Annihilationism vs Traditional

As explained above in this paper, annihilationism is an increasingly popular alternative to the traditional view of the afterlife.[35] Even the well-known agnostic Bart Ehrman believes Jesus taught annihilationism.[36] Annihilationists rally many supporting proof texts for their view, including language such as destruction, perish, and death (Matt. 3:12; 7:19; John 15:6). However, their conclusion is insufficient given the entirety of the biblical text.

For instance, in Revelation 14:11, it is said that the torment (basanismo) of the unrepentant will “go up forever and ever,” and this word for torment is used without exception to refer to conscious human suffering, not merely in the annihilationist sense of personal experience.[37] Moreover, in Mark 14:21, Jesus said of Judas that it would be better if he had not been born (Mark 14:21). This statement seems irrelevant if Judas were to pass out of existence after death, for the weightiness of the words of Jesus implies much more severe consequences lasting for eternity. Jesus also said that it would be better to be mutilated of that which causes one to sin than to enter hell with those body parts (Matt 5.29-30). This seems extreme if one were to merely become nonexistent after death; as Craig L. Blomberg said, “If hell is just lack of conscious existence, there would be a lot of situations in which people would find that to be more desirable than suffering as a maimed person in this life.”[38] 

Blasphemy against the Holy Spirit, Jesus taught, is an unforgivable sin both in this life and the one to come (Matt 12:31-32). This teaching suggests that committing this sin continues over into eternity (not merely ending after death in this life). Lastly, the usage of “everlasting destruction” by Paul (2 Thess. 1:9) references an intertestamental book within Jewish tradition, 4 Maccabees. This book is the only place this specific phrase appears and refers only to the conscious awareness of punishment, contrary to annihilationism (4 Macc. 9:9; 10:10-11; 12:12; 18). That said, the annihilationist view falls short of explaining key biblical texts, while the traditional view remains favored.

Universalism vs Traditional

Outspoken universalist David Bentley Hart said, “The idea of eternal conscious torment in hell is morally corrupt, contrary to justice, perverse, inexcusably cruel, deeply irrational, and essentially,” and if everlasting hell were true, he said, “Christianity should be dismissed as a self-evident morally obtuse and logically incoherent faith.”[39] The universalist position is that everyone, either immediately after death or shortly after, will eventually enter heaven, regardless of their actions or beliefs in this life. Similar to annihilationism, these claims fall short when examining critical biblical texts.  

For instance, there is a stark contrast between the righteous and unrighteous throughout the Old Testament as seen in Psalms, Proverbs, and specifically in Daniel 12:2, which speaks of some entering into “everlasting life” and others to “everlasting contempt” (Dan. 12:2). In the New Testament, John 3:16 differentiates between those who have “eternal life” and those who will “perish” (John 3:16). There are also only a limited number of names in the “Book of Life” and no one whose names are not included can enter into the presence of God (Rev. 13:8). Jesus also spoke of the unforgivable sin both in this life and the next (Matt. 12:31-32). Some universalists may point to Colossians 1:20, which teaches that “all things” will be reconciled to Christ, and argue that this includes the unrepentant. However, just a few verses later (vv. 21-23), Paul includes a conditional statement, specifically, “If indeed you continue in the faith” (Col. 1:23). Similar conditional statements and warnings are offered by Paul elsewhere (Rom. 5, 1 Tim. 2:6). Thus, none of these verses fit the universalist narrative and instead support the traditional view more sufficiently.

Thus, the temptation to hold to universalism and embed such a view into Scripture is an emotional move rather than an objective one. Indeed, most people (if not all) want all persons to be saved, for even God wants this to be the case (1 Tim. 2:4, 2 Pet. 3:9). However, given the free will human beings were given by God to be able to make free moral choices, Jesus is the potential Savior for all of humanity, instead of being the actual Savior for all (1 John 2:2, John 1:12). God has provided means for all to be saved through Jesus on the cross. However, it is still up to every human to accept such a pardon. With this being said, as tempting it is to believe all will eventually be saved, Scripture seems to advocate otherwise and teach that people will use their free will to reject God both here and into eternity, despite the will of God for them to be saved (Ezek. 33:11). Therefore, universalism also fails to explain vital biblical texts concerning the afterlife sufficiently. At the same time, the traditional view remains widely supported.

Conclusion

The traditional view of heaven and hell is more accurate to what Scripture teaches than alternative, increasingly popular views, such as universalism and annihilationism. However, this implies much more than being biblically correct. Specifically, the traditional view of the afterlife offers significant meaning for this life and for eternity, while also giving sufficient reason to urgently follow Jesus' command to proclaim the gospel to all the nations, make disciples, and baptize them (Mark 16:15; Matt 28:19).

Hell is a real and eternal place where those who reject God in this life will continue to reject Him into eternity and be sent to everlasting punishment, judgment, and torment. The illustrations throughout Scripture are not meant to be taken literally but are metaphors that show why human beings should avoid going there at all costs. Contrary to what annihilationists hold, separation from God is not merely the route to temporary agony followed by passing out of existence, for that makes light of the seriousness of hell.

Rather, it is eternal, horrifying, and absent of the source of life for all of humanity, God. Moreover, contrary to the universalist position, it will not be the case that hell will be empty in due time and heaven will be full of everybody who ever lived. Following the Great Commission would lose some of its significance if that were the case. Rather, in the traditional view, the stakes are as high as can be, and proclaiming the gospel is of the highest importance. If the gospel is accepted, the eternal destination is to be present with God; if it is not accepted, eternal hell is the result (John 3:16-17).

Footnotes

[1] Mark Strauss, “The Campaign to Eliminate Hell,” National Geographic (2016). www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/05/160513-theology-hell-history-christianity.

[2] Tracy Munsil, “AWVI 2020 Survey: 1 in 3 US Adults Embrace Salvation through Jesus; More Believe It Can Be ‘Earned,’” Arizona Christian University: Cultural Research Center (2020). www.arizonachristian.edu/blog/2020/08/04/1-in-3-us-adults-embrace-salvation-through-jesus-more-believe-it-can-be-earned.

[3] Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013), 1135.

[4] B. B. Warfield, “Annihilationism,” The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, ed. Samuel Macauley Jackson (New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1908), n.p.

[5] Edward White, Life in Christ: A Study of the Scripture Doctrine of the Nature of Man, the Object of the Divine Incarnation, and the Conditions of Human Immortality, 3rd rev. ed. (London: Elliot Stock, 1878). n.p.

[6] Clark Pinnock, “The Destruction of the Finally Impenitent,” Criswell Theological Review 4, no. 2 (1990): 243-59, 15.

[7] Rob Bell, Love Wins: A Book about Heaven, Hell, and the Fate of Every Person Who Ever Lived (San Francisco, CA: HarperOne, 2011), 107.

[8] Francis Chan and Preston Sprinkle, Erasing Hell: What God Said About Eternity, and the Things We’ve Made Up (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2011), 23.

[9] Ibid.

[10] Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013), 941.

[11] Rob Bell, Love Wins: A Book about Heaven, Hell, and the Fate of Every Person Who Ever Lived (San Francisco, CA: HarperOne, 2011), 107.

[12] Paul R. Williamson, “Death and the Afterlife: Biblical Perspectives on Ultimate Questions,” New Studies in Biblical Theology 44, ed. D.A. Carson (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2017), 193.

[13] Robert A. Peterson, “Undying Worm Unquenchable Fire,” Christianity Today 44, no. 12 (2000): 30-37. http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/archives/.

[14] Gregory MacDonald, The Evangelical Universalist: The Biblical Hope that God’s Love Will Save Us All, 2nd ed. (London: SPCK, 2012), 147-148.

[15] Thomas Talbot, The Inescapable Love of God, 2nd ed. (Eugene: Cascade, 2014), 85.

[16] Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013), 1137.

[17] Ibid., 179.

[18] Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013), 1125.

[19] Helmut Traub, “οὐρανός,” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76), 5:514–20.

[20] Ibid., 521-522.

[21] Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955), 1030.

[22] Ulrich Simon, Heaven in the Christian Tradition (New York: Harper, 1958), 236.

[23] Paul R. Williamson, “Death and the Afterlife: Biblical Perspectives on Ultimate Questions,” New Studies in Biblical Theology 44, ed. D.A. Carson (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2017), 175.

[24] Ibid., 176.

[25] Paul R. Williamson, “Death and the Afterlife: Biblical Perspectives on Ultimate Questions,” New Studies in Biblical Theology 44, ed. D.A. Carson (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2017), 176.

[26] John Gerstner, Repent or Perish (Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria, 1990), 31.

[27] N.T. Wright, Surprised by Hope (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2008), 175.

[28] John F. Walvoord, “The Literal Views,” Four Views on Hell, ed. William Crockett (Grand Rapids, Mi: Zondervan, 1996), 28.

[29] Paul Copan, “The Logic of Hell,” The Case for Heaven, ed. Lee Strobel (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2001), 147.

[30] John G. Stackhouse Jr., “Terminal Punishment,” Four Views on Hell, ed. Preston Sprinkle (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016), 79.

[31] Thomas Aquinas, Effects of Sin, Stain, and Guilt 27 of Summa Theologiae (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 25.

[32] D.A. Carson, How Long, O Lord? Reflections of Suffering and Evil, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006), 61.

[33] Dallas Willard, The Allure of Gentleness: Defending the Faith in the Manner of Jesus (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016), 67.

[34] C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (New York: HarperOne, 2001), 130.

[35] John Stott, “Judgment and Hell,” Rethinking Hell, eds. Christopher M. Date, Gregory G. Stump, and Joshua W. Anderson (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2014), 55.

[36] Bart D. Ehrman, Heaven and Hell: A History of the Afterlife (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2020), 155.

[37] G.K. Beale, “The Book of Revelation,” New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 762-763.

[38] Craig L. Blomberg, Can We Still Believe in God? Answering Ten Contemporary Challenges to Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2020), 29.

[39] David Bentley Hart, That All Shall Be Saved: Heaven, hell, and Universal Salvation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019), 208.

Bibliography

Aquinas, Thomas. Effects of Sin, Stain, and Guilt 27 of Summa Theologiae. Cambridge: Cambrdige Unviersity Press, 2006.

Beale, G.K. “The Book of Revelation.” New International Greek Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999.

Bell, Rob. Love Wins: A Book about Heaven, Hell, and the Fate of Every Person Who Ever Lived. San Francisco, CA: HarperOne, 2011.

Blomberg, Craig L. Can We Still Believe in God? Answering Ten Contemporary Challenges to Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2020.

Brown, Francis, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. New York: Oxford University Press, 1955.

Carson, D.A. How Long, O Lord? Reflections of Suffering and Evil, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Chan, Francis, and Preston Sprinkle. Erasing Hell: What God Said About Eternity, and the Things We’ve Made Up. Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2011.

Crockett, William, Four Views on Hell. Grand Rapids, Mi: Zondervan, 1996.

Date, Christopher M, Gregory G. Stump, and Joshua W. Anderson. Rethinking Hell. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2014.

Ehrman, Bart D. Heaven and Hell: A History of the Afterlife. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2020.

Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology, 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2013.

Gerstner, John. Repent or Perish. Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria, 1990.

Hart, David Bentley. That All Shall Be Saved: Heaven, hell, and Universal Salvation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2019.

Kittel, Gerhard and Gerhard Friedrich. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament 10. trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–76.

Lewis, C.S. The Problem of Pain. New York: HarperOne, 2001.

MacDonald, Gregory. The Evangelical Universalist: The Biblical Hope that God’s Love Will Save Us All, 2nd ed. London: SPCK, 2012.

Munsil, Tracy. “AWVI 2020 Survey: 1 in 3 US Adults Embrace Salvation through Jesus; More Believe It Can Be ‘Earned.’” Arizona Christian University: Cultural Research Center, August 4, 2020. www.arizonachristian.edu/blog/2020/08/04/1-in-3-us-adults-embrace-salvation-through-jesus-more-believe-it-can-be-earned.

Peterson, Robert A. “Undying Worm Unquenchable Fire.” Christianity Today 44, no. 12 (2000): 30-37.

Pinnock, Clark. “The Destruction of the Finally Impenitent,” Criswell Theological Review 4, no. 2 (1990): 243-59.

Simon, Ulrich. Heaven in the Christian Tradition. New York: Harper, 1958.

Sprinkle, Preston. Four Views on Hell. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2016.

Strauss, Mark. “The Campaign to Eliminate Hell.” National Geographic, May 13, 2016. www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/05/160513-theology-hell-history-christianity.

Strobel, Lee. The Case for Heaven. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2001.

Talbott, Thomas. The Inescapable Love of God, 2nd ed. Eugene: Cascade, 2014.

Warfield, Benjamin Breckinridge. “Annihilationism,” The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, ed. Samuel Macauley Jackson. New York: Funk and Wagnalls Company, 1908.

White, Edward. Life in Christ: A Study of the Scripture Doctrine of the Nature of Man, the Object of the Divine Incarnation, and the Conditions of Human Immortality, 3rd rev. ed. London: Elliot Stock, 1878.

Willard, Dallas. The Allure of Gentleness: Defending the Faith in the Manner of Jesus. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2016.

Williamson, Paul R. “Death and the Afterlife: Biblical Perspectives on Ultimate Questions.” New Studies in Biblical Theology 44, ed. D.A. Carson. London; Downers Grove, IL: Apollos; InterVarsity Press, 2017.

Wright, N.T. Surprised by Hope. San Francisco: HarperOne, 2008.