An Exegesis of Ephesians 4:7-16

While earning my Master's in Christian Apologetics, I had to write an exegesis (an explanation or interpretation) of Ephesians 4:7-16. The paper is pasted below, and is also available in PDF format at the very bottom of this page.

7 But grace was given to each one of us according to the measure of Christ’s gift. 8 Therefore it says, 

“When he ascended on high he led a host of captives, 

and he gave gifts to men.” 

9 (In saying, “He ascended,” what does it mean but that he had also descended into the lower regions, the earth? 10 He who descended is the one who also ascended far above all the heavens, that he might fill all things.) 11 And he gave the apostles, the prophets, the evangelists, the shepherds and teachers, 12 to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, 13 until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ, 14 so that we may no longer be children, tossed to and fro by the waves and carried about by every wind of doctrine, by human cunning, by craftiness in deceitful schemes. 15 Rather, speaking the truth in love, we are to grow up in every way into him who is the head, into Christ, 16 from whom the whole body, joined and held together by every joint with which it is equipped, when each part is working properly, makes the body grow so that it builds itself up in love. (Eph. 4:7-16 ESV)

Introduction

The book of Ephesians, penned by the apostle Paul, is one of the richest theological teachings for the church. Among the most memorable parts of this book is “The Armor of God” (Eph. 6); however, it also contains exhortation and an emphasis on the importance of unity among believers. The apostle Paul has traditionally been attributed to writing thirteen of the twenty-seven books in the New Testament. Most of these books are letters filled predominantly with theological teaching for the recipients. However, the book of Ephesians is unique in that it incorporates praise and encouragement in addition to theological teaching.

Although many Jews lived in Ephesus when Paul wrote to them, it was specifically intended for the Gentiles who had converted (Eph. 2:11-13). Within the Gentile community, there was also a diversity of religious beliefs. Paul, an apostle to the Gentiles (Rom. 11:13), was appointed to a ministry uniting Gentiles and Jews into the body of Christ. The diversity in the early church is no stranger to believers today. Among the many denominations of Christianity and the individual gifts Christ has given believers, believers are urged to maintain the unity of the Spirit (Eph. 4:2) and grow together under the headship of Christ as one body. In Ephesians 4:7-16, Paul emphasizes three critical aspects of the body of Christ that are relevant for both the original recipients and for Christians today: unity, individuality, and hierarchy.

Context

Historical Context

         Although the letter is titled “Ephesians” and begins in modern Bibles by addressing “the saints of Ephesus” (Eph. 1:1), this verse is not included in the earliest manuscripts.[1] Also, unlike the other letters he wrote to specific churches (Rom. 16; Col. 4:10-17), Paul concludes the letter without personal greetings. Therefore, it is possible that this letter was not strictly written for the Ephesians but was meant to be circulated to nearby churches in the Roman province of Asia from the city of Ephesus, given its unique geographical layout.  

         Located on the Aegean coast, Ephesus was one of the largest cities in the Roman Empire.[2] The roads were spread out in every direction from the city along the coast and through the region, making it a major commercial port, resulting in substantial growth. This led to Ephesus being ethnically diverse, comprised of Lydians, Ionians, Greeks, Anatolians, and a large Jewish population.[3] Such trade routes extended from the city to other provinces, likely leading to many pagan temples the Ephesians worshiped (about 50 deities).[4]

         Paul noted that a man named Tychicus was the courier of the Ephesians letter and another letter written by Paul called Colossians (Col. 4:7; Eph. 6:21-22). Interestingly, about 34 percent of the content in Colossians is seen in Ephesians, and about 26 percent of what is in Ephesians appears in Colossians.[5] While imprisoned, Paul sent a Christian runaway slave, Onesimus, to his believing master, Philemon, who lived near Colosse. Onesimus was accompanied by Tychicus, who delivered the Colossian letter (4:7-9). For Tychicus and Onesimus to get to Colosse, they would have naturally crossed through Ephesus.[6] Therefore, it’s likely Paul gave the letter to Tychicus to circulate to other churches on his journey – placing the composition of Ephesians around 60-63 A.D. Before writing this letter, however, Paul had spent time in Ephesus (1 Cor. 15:32, Acts 19).[7] He also developed genuine relationships with the Ephesians (Acts 20:37). Therefore, Paul was close to the community, which illuminated the passion behind the words he penned in his letter.

Cultural Context

The culture in first century Ephesus was very much diverse ethnically and religiously.[8] Two of the leading pagan threats to the Ephesians were the cult of Artemis and the imperial cult based on the impact the worship of these cults had on their daily lives. For instance, the main temple for Artemis was uniquely large and considered one of the seven wonders of the ancient world.[9] Festivals were held to worship her, and the cult of Artemis followed a tradition called “votive religion.”[10] This practice was essentially polytheism— the gods they worshiped were similar to godly butlers. Specific prayers were made to distinct gods known for immediate benefits that were requested (not eternal salvation). In his letter, Paul addresses this and contrasts it with proper worship of the true God (Eph. 4:17; 5:8-16).

The imperial cult was the worship of “the peace of Rome” brought forth by the economic gain and military power of the Roman Empire. This resulted in the worship of those in power, such as Augustus (who claimed to be Zeus/Jupiter) and Julius Caesar (who was declared “god made manifest”), among others.[11] The city praised the “peace of Rome,” but it came at a significant cost for their enemies; as Lynn H. Cohick explains, “Many who walked the streets of Ephesus came from conquered territories, and slaves from these areas would be regular cargo in its harbor.”[12] Paul also addresses this by contrasting the peace of darkness they were used to with the peace of Christ, which is life-giving, unifying, and everlasting.

There was a vast Jewish population as well.[13] Josephus, an ancient Jewish historian, recorded the tensions between the Gentiles and the Jews, as well as the Jews seemingly being able to maintain their traditions despite being surrounded by many pagan practices.[14] This supports why Paul focuses on unity within the family of believers in his letter.

Literary Context 

The first three chapters of the letter provide doctrinal teaching on the salvation accomplished by Christ and the identity of all believers in Christ. In the last three chapters, Paul presents guidance on Christian living and the ethical implications of receiving salvation. The passage, Ephesians 4:7-16, in the original Greek language, was written in just one verse as a lengthy sentence — implying continuity in how it should be read.[15]

The preceding verses (Eph. 4:1-6) set the tone for the rest of the letter based on the earlier teaching as made clear by the term “therefore” in the first verse. Here, Paul emphasizes how believers are to live together cohesively ­— resembling the broader sense of unity that God has set forth. Paul illustrates that the individual differences (i.e., gifts) among believers were not designed for isolated flourishment, but they were given by God for Christians to function in unity and grow together by the Holy Spirit.

The immediate context following this passage (Eph. 4:17-5:20) focuses on discarding the old life and putting on the new life found only in Christ. To truly become like Christ, believers need to put an end to the old sinful life and be renewed in Him. In this chapter, Paul emphasizes the immediate need for such a change (Eph. 4:17-19), gives the foundation for changing (Eph. 4:20-24), and provides examples (Eph. 4:25-5:2). Between the beginning and end of Chapter Four, Paul emphasizes the necessity of unity among believers, considering the individual gifts Christ gave them.

Understanding the Text

Textual Analysis

         The passage, Ephesians 4:7-16, begins with a declaration (4:7), proceeds with a reference to Psalm 68:18 (4:8), an interpretation of the Old Testament verse (4:10), and a continuously lengthy sentence in the original Greek language, emphasizing the argument Paul is raising (4:11-16).[16] This passage shows that unity, individuality, and hierarchy are emphasized for the original audience and believers today. This is evident by conducting a verse-by-verse analysis of the passage.

         Paul begins this passage in 4:7 with the conjunction “but.” In contrast to prior verses, Paul highlights the significance of individuality within a unified body (made evident by the prepositional phrase, “to each one of us”). By “according to the measure of Christ’s gift,” he refers to the amount received according to how much grace Christ gives. Some believe this phrase harmonizes with the same gifts of the Spirit given to believers listed elsewhere in the New Testament (Rom. 12:1-8; 1 Cor. 12:4-7).[17] Others object by pointing out that the word “gift” in Greek is dōrea and is singular in this verse; therefore, is not related to the other New Testament passages (in which “gifts” is plural).[18] This contrasts with when Paul speaks of “different gifts” in Rom. 12:6 and 1 Cor. 12:4, where he uses the Greek word charismata, which is plural.[19] Furthermore, in the two passages mentioned above, Paul advises believers on how to coexist as one body despite their differences in spiritual gifts and to avoid comparing to one another in pride.[20] In Ephesians, however, Paul emphasizes unity (not differences) and equipping the believers for ministry from the gift (singular) Christ has given the church (Eph. 4:11).[21] Thus, there does not appear to be a parallel between these passages, and Ephesians is unique in that resources are being gifted to the church for the building up of ministry.

In Eph. 4:8, some believe Paul quotes from the Old Testament (Ps. 68:18), but he makes two primary changes to the passage. Specifically, he changes this passage from second to third person, and he infers that gifts are given rather than received.[22] Due to the significant changes made to the Psalm, others think Paul was not quoting just one specific verse but instead gave a summary of the entire chapter (Ps. 68).[23] He likely concluded that the work of Christ was the fulfillment of the victory that the psalmist was indicating.[24] In verses 9-10, Paul asks a rhetorical question that answers itself—to speak of the ascension of Christ is to understand first that he had previously descended.[25] The phrase “into the lower regions, the earth” can be interpreted as Christ descending into Hades or the incarnation of Christ when He came down to dwell on earth. However, the likely translation is “the lower parts—the earth,” which indicates he is describing Christ as the one who descended to earth in his incarnation and ascended to the highest place above all rulers and authorities and is the source of all gifting.[26]

In verse 11, Paul expands on the gift Christ gave the church.[27] Apostles are sent by Christ to preach the gospel as ambassadors; prophets are those who speak under the inspiration of the Spirit; evangelists carry the gospel all over the world (proclaiming especially to the lost); a pastor (poimenas) means shepherd who guides, protects and leads the lost sheep (John 10:13); and teachers are those who teach the Word in the church—ensuring the passing down of sound doctrine.[28] Given the singular Greek word for “gift” (dōrea) in verse 11, the gift is ministerial leadership given by Christ to the church as helpful resources for equipping each believer to build up the ministry of the entire body of Christ, as made evident in verse 12.[29] The word “until” in verse 13 likely refers to the only time believers will reach full maturity and unity which is on the other side of heaven (Eph. 2:11-22).[30] It can also mean working towards a goal (new creation).[31]

Those in the community at this time would be fully aware of what it meant to be “tossed to and fro” by the vicious waves, specifically of the Mediterranean Sea, which was important for commercial trade and the exportation of the Christian faith (Acts 13:13-15)—the warnings Paul gave would have resonated well with his readers.[32] In contrast with “human cunning, craftiness, and deceit” mentioned in verse 14, in verse 15, Paul exhorts the audience to grow by “speaking the truth in love” into a more faithful and unified church. Some have proposed that Christ being the head fits the portrayal Paul made in verse 13, where he said believers are to gain both faith and knowledge and that Christ is the source of both.[33] Others, while not necessarily disagreeing with such a stance, see Paul using the human body illustration to invoke the idea of the indispensability of the head for the body and the corresponding need that the body has for the head.[34]

Paul makes another stark contrast to begin verse 16; in the previous verse, growth was described as going into the head (Christ), but here, it is also described as growth out from its head. While impossible to imagine physically, it is believed Paul is invoking Christ, the head of the body, as the source of the body and provider.[35] Paul ends this passage by emphasizing unity among diversity and presents the source, provider, and goal for believers to grow— Christ.

Textual Synthesis

         The overall point of emphasis of this passage is that of unity, individuality, and hierarchy. Specifically, the body of Christ (the universal church) is to grow and mature as a unified body (Eph. 4:15-16) from the collective unit that has already been established by Christ (Eph. 2:11-22). This unity is to grow towards full unity with Christ in complete harmony, which will portray the passing of the present age and foreshadow the arrival of the new creation (Eph. 4:13, 15). Within this unity, each individual believer has a specific role to play in accordance with the grace Christ has given from His ascended state (Eph. 4:7, 16b, 8-10). However, believers are not left without help to accomplish such a daunting task. Instead, Christ has given His church a gift (Eph. 4:7b), which is certain ministerial leaders to guide, protect, maintain, and equip the body of Christ to build upon their own ministries as a cohesive unified body (11-13).

Paul ends this passage by emphasizing unity and that the “whole body,” which is all believers, is held together by “every joint for which it was equipped” (Eph. 4:16). This can refer to the individuality within such a unified body, and when all individual parts of the body work properly, the result is growth and maturity in Christ.[36] As Cohick said about this passage: "From Christ the head, the body is able to work together as each does its job for the whole.”[37] Given the cultural context of Ephesus during the time this was written (as explained above), the believers were faced with a significant amount of paganism. Therefore, reading that Jesus has taken captive the powers at hand (alluding to Col. 2:15), this would have resonated well with the audience. Furthermore, the believers were gifted with beneficial ministerial leaders who could help them mature and grow in Christ and prevent them from being carried about with every wind of doctrine and mere human deceit (Eph. 4:14) that was so prevalent among the paganists. The gift of such leaders assisted with growing as a unified body according to sound doctrine (as taught by the teachers and overseen by the pastors). Ultimately, the gift was provided by Christ to lead in the unified church, to build up, mature, and grow corporately in love. 

Significance and Application

Significance

         The importance of this passage cannot be overstated as it relates to the Church and every individual Christian. All living things grow and thrive within an ecological ecosystem, and the body of Christ is no different. In this passage, Paul explains how the body of Christ can grow in ways beyond the capability in which believers can grow alone (Eph. 4:16). The key concepts Paul emphasizes for the Church and individual believers to grow and flourish fully include unity, individual contribution, and hierarchy. As Lowe and Lowe said, “For kingdom growth to occur or for the body of Christ to grow to full maturity, functioning spiritual connections and interactions must sustain growth individually and collectively.”[38] This individual and collective growth is assisted by the gift (dōrea) Christ gave the Church (Eph. 4:7)—those in ministerial leadership roles (Eph. 4:11).

This unity, however, is not just the horizontal connection between believers, but it is the vertical union of the body of believers with the Holy Spirit as well (Eph. 4:2; Phil. 2:1).[39] Such union grows in every aspect in Christ who is the head of the body (Eph. 4:15). Calling Christ “the head” has significant implications for the Church and is emphasized throughout the Pauline writings (Eph. 1:22-23; Col. 1:18; Eph. 5:30). To conclude the passage of interest, Paul explains how each of the individual members, when functioning properly, results in immense growth into Christ (the head). Thus, to be disconnected from the head is not to function at all, as Paul warned the believers in Colossae (Col. 2:16-19). The gift of the ministerial leaders has been given by Christ to prevent such a disconnection from the head and from facing disastrous implications (Eph. 4:11). Yet, a body that consists of each part building up interdependently and interconnectivity develops into the fullness of Christ.[40] This is not just in alignment with how God designed the relationship between Himself and the Church, but it is also how individual believers, and the body of Christ can fully flourish, grow, and mature.

Application

         A lot can be taken from this passage and applied to individual believers and the Church. The primary emphasis Paul makes in this passage is to maintain unity among believers that make up the body of Christ (Eph. 4:2-6). The question then becomes: how do believers go about maintaining such unity? First, each believer is to actively participate in ministry (Eph. 4:11) and is called to build up the body of Christ by their individual contributions in an interdependent manner. This does not necessarily entail working in a church or starting a nonprofit ministry. Rather, it involves being an ambassador of Christ wherever the believer finds themselves (such as at work or in school) and using the gifts (charismata) given by God (Rom. 12:6-8; 1 Cor. 12:4-11) for building up the body of Christ (the Church).

To illustrate the importance of individual contribution within a community, Michael Behe, a biochemist, coined what is called irreducible complexity, in which he defines it as “a single system composed of several well-matched, interacting parts that contribute to the basic function of the system, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning."[41] This is one of many examples of an ecological framework found throughout nature where individual parts necessarily contribute to the unified whole. Paul concludes the passage of interest by mentioning that the body of Christ is held together by every joint, and when they work properly, the body flourishes (Eph. 4:16). The phrase “every joint” refers to each individual believer and is a call to action for believers to contribute in their own ministries, to participate in holding together the body of Christ.[42]

Lastly, to avoid facing the negative implications of not being a united body (Eph. 4:14), Christ has given the gift (dōrea) of ministerial leadership resources to assist in equipping each believer for ministry and building up the body of Christ (Eph. 4:11-12). Research by Barna has shown that three in five young adults leave the church before the age of fifteen.[43] The reasons Barna found for this can all be linked to the youth having unanswered questions and needing leadership within the church. Therefore, believers today should actively utilize such resources and avoid isolation. Doing so results in protection from deceitful schemes, guidance in sound doctrine, and ultimately, growing and maturing in every way into Christ (Eph. 4:14-15).

Conclusion

          God has created all things to function interdependently and interconnectivity in an ecological framework, not only to function properly but also to grow and flourish. This is true for how humans can grow spiritually as well. For all things come from the grace of God, and in being all-knowing, He has provided what is needed for the well-being of humanity and the body of Christ as a whole. Namely, this passage illuminates key concepts of the body of Christ relevant for believers today: unity, individual contribution, and the gift of ministerial leadership.

Footnotes

[1] Donald Arthur Carson, et al., New Bible Commentary: 21st Century Edition (Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994), 1222.

[2]  David Seal. “Ephesus,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al., (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[3] Ibid. “Population”.

[4] Clinton E. Arnold, Ephesians, Exegetical Commentary On The New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 31, 33.

[5] Jason C. Kuo, “Ephesians, Letter to the,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[6] Max Turner, “Ephesians,” in New Bible Commentary: 21st Century Edition, ed. D. A. Carson et al., 4th ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994), 1222.

[7] Harold W. Hoehner, “Ephesians,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures 2, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 613–614.

[8] Clinton E. Arnold, Ephesians, Exegetical Commentary On The New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 19.

[9] Lynn H. Cohick, The Letter to the Ephesians (Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 52, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[10] Burkert, Walter, Ancient Mystery Cults (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987), 12.

[11] Lynn H. Cohick, The Letter to the Ephesians (Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 54, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[12] Ibid. 55.

[13] Mikael, Tellbe, Christ-Believers in Ephesus: A Textual Analysis of Early Christian Identity Formation in Local Perspective (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009), 75.

[14] Lynn H. Cohick, The Letter to the Ephesians (Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 57, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[15] C. Leslie Mitton, The New Century Bible Commentary: Ephesians. Ed. Matthew Black, (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1989), 143.

[16] Max Turner, “Ephesians,” in New Bible Commentary: 21st Century Edition, ed. D. A. Carson et al., 4th ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994), 1237.

[17] Harold W. Hoehner, Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 379, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[18] Lynn H. Cohick, The Letter to the Ephesians (Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 195, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[19] Douglas A. Campbell, Framing Paul: An Epistolary Biography, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014), 284.

[20] Jeffrey A.D. Weima, Paul the Ancient Letter Writer: An Introduction to Epistolary Analysis, (Ada, MI: Baker Academic, 2016), 27.

[21] Lynn H. Cohick, The Letter to the Ephesians (Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 195, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[22] Harold W. Hoehner, “Ephesians,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures 2, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 634.

[23] Ibid.

[24] Ibid., 196.

[25] Constantine R. Campbell, The Letter to the Ephesians, (Chicago: Eerdmans, 2023), 160. ProQuest Ebook Central.

[26] Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians. NICNT. Rev. ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014).

[27] Harold W. Hoehner, “Ephesians,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 634.

[28] Jonathan O. Ojo, “Exploring Ephesians 4:7-16 as paradigms for the contemporary Church planting and growth,” Practical Theology (Baptist College of Theology, Lagos) 5, (2012): 219.

[29] Guy MacLean Rogers, The Mysteries of Artemis of Ephesos: Cult, Polis, and Change in the Graeco-Roman World, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 16.

[30] Max Turner, “Ephesians,” in New Bible Commentary: 21st Century Edition, ed. D. A. Carson et al., 4th ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994), 1238.

[31] Ibid., 1239.

[32] Daniel M. Gurtner, “Ephesians,” in The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Acts–Philemon, ed. Craig A. Evans and Craig A. Bubeck, First Edition. (Colorado Springs, CO: David C Cook, 2004), 556.

[33] Harold W. Hoehner, Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 408, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[34] Clinton E. Arnold, “Jesus Christ: ‘Head’ of the Church (Colossians and Ephesians),” in Jesus of Nazareth Lord and Christ: Essays on the Historical Jesus and New Testament Christology, ed. Joel B. Green and Max Turner (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994), 346-366).

[35] Constantine R. Campbell, Metaphor, Reality, and Union with Christ (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 71.

[36] Lynn H. Cohick, The Letter to the Ephesians (Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 207, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Stephen D. Lowe and Mary E. Lowe, Ecologies of Faith in a Digital Age: Spiritual Growth through Online Education (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018), 62–63.

[39] Ibid., 142.

[40] Lynn H. Cohick, The Letter to the Ephesians (Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020), 207, ProQuest Ebook Central.

[41] Michael J. Behe, Darwin’s Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution, (New York: Free Press, 1996), 39.

[42] Harold W. Hoehner, “Ephesians,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 635–636.

[43] Barna Group. “Six Reasons Young Christians Leave Church.” Last updated September 27, 2011. https://www.barna.com/research/six-reasons-young-christians-leave-church/.

Bibliography

Arnold, Clinton E. Ephesians. Exegetical Commentary On The New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010).

Barna Group. “Six Reasons Young Christians Leave Church.” Last updated September 27, 2011. https://www.barna.com/research/six-reasons-young-christians-leave-church/.

Barry, John D., David Bomar, Derek R. Brown, Rachel Klippenstein, Douglas Mangum, Carrie Sinclair Wolcott, Lazarus Wentz, Elliot Ritzema, and Wendy Widder, eds. The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016.

Basil the Great. Against Eunomius. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of American Press, 2011.

Behe, Michael J. Darwin’s Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution. New York: Free Press, 1996.

Campbell, Constantine R. Metaphor, Reality, and Union with Christ. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2014.

Campbell, Constantine R. The Letter to the Ephesians. Chicago: Eerdmans, 2023. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Campbell, Douglas A. Framing Paul: An Epistolary Biography. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014.

Cohick, Lynn H. The Letter to the Ephesians. Chicago: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2020. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Donald Arthur Carson, R.T. France, J. Alec Motyer, and Gordon J. Wenham. New Bible Commentary: 21st Century Edition. Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994.

Evans, Craig A. The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Acts-Philemon. Colorado Springs, CO: David Cook, 2003.

Fee, Gordon D. The First Epistle to the Corinthians. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2014.

Green, Joel B., and Max Turner. Jesus of Nazareth: Lord and Christ: Essays on the Historical Jesus and New Testament Christology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994.

Hoehner, Harold W. Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002.

Lowe, Stephen D., and Mary E. Lowe. Ecologies of Faith in a Digital Age: Spiritual Growth Through Online Education. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2018.

Merida, Tony Exalting Jesus in Ephesians. Nashville, TN: Holman Reference, 2014.

Mitton, C. Leslie. The New Century Bible Commentary: Ephesians. Ed. Matthew Black. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1989.

Ojo Jonathan O. “Exploring Ephesians 4:7-16 as paradigms for the contemporary Church planting and growth.” Practical Theology. Baptist College of Theology, Lagos, 2012.

Rogers, Guy MacLean. The Mysteries of Artemis of Epheos: Cult, Polis, and Change in the Graeco-Roman World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2023.

Tellbe, Mikael. Christ-Believers in Ephesus: A Textual Analysis of Early Christian Identity Formation in Local Perspective. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009.

Walter Burkert. Ancient Mystery Cults. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987.

Walvoord, John F., and Roy B. Zuck, Dallas Theological Seminary. The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures. Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985.

Weima, Jeffrey A.D. Paul the Ancient Letter Writer: An Introduction to Epistolary Analysis. Ada, MI: Baker Academic, 2016.

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